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<TABLE cellpadding=5 cellspacing=0 width="90%"><TR><TD CLASS="chtitle">
<FONT COLOR="#FFFFFF">
<CENTER><B>CHAPTER 10.&nbsp; MODAL VERBS</B></CENTER></FONT></TD></TR></TABLE><BR>
<BR>

<!--page 107-->
There are nine modal verbs in English: can, could, may, might, must,
shall, should, will, and would. Two of these, <B>will</B> and <B>would</B>, have
already been discussed in detail.<P>
&nbsp;<BR>

<A NAME="1"></A>
<CENTER><B>1. Formation of the modal conjugations</B></CENTER><BR>

All of the modal verbs are used as auxiliaries, and all of them form
conjugations in the same way. Thus, the other modal auxiliaries form
conjugations in the same way as <B>will</B> and <B>would</B>. For instance,
the conjugation of the modal auxiliary <B>could</B> with the verb <B>to work</B>
is formed as follows:<BR>
<BR>
<CENTER><B>Conjugations of the modal auxiliary Could with the verb To Work</B></CENTER><BR>
<BR>
<TABLE  border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Simple</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Continuous</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; I could work</TD><TD>&nbsp; I could be working</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; you could work</TD><TD>&nbsp; you could be working</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; he could work</TD><TD>&nbsp; he could be working</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; she could work</TD><TD>&nbsp; she could be working</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; it could work</TD><TD>&nbsp; it could be working</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; we could work</TD><TD>&nbsp; we could be working</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; they could work</TD><TD>&nbsp; they could be working<BR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD></TR>
<TR><TD><U><B>Perfect</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Perfect Continuous</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; I could have worked</TD><TD>&nbsp; I could have been working</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; you could have worked</TD><TD>&nbsp; you could have been working</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; he could have worked</TD><TD>&nbsp; he could have been working</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; she could have worked</TD><TD>&nbsp; she could have been working</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; it could have worked</TD><TD>&nbsp; it could have been working</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; we could have worked</TD><TD>&nbsp; we could have been working</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; they could have worked</TD><TD>&nbsp; they could have been working</TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>
<BR>
The formation of conjugations using the modal auxiliaries can be
summarized as follows:<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE  border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Conjugation</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Auxiliary</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Verb Form</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; Simple</TD><TD>&nbsp; modal auxiliary</TD><TD>&nbsp; bare infinitive</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; Continuous</TD><TD>&nbsp; modal auxiliary + be</TD><TD>&nbsp; present participle</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; Perfect</TD><TD>&nbsp; modal auxiliary + have</TD><TD>&nbsp; past participle</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; Perfect Continuous</TD><TD>&nbsp; modal auxiliary + have been</TD><TD>&nbsp; present participle</TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>
<BR>

<!--page 108-->
Verbs in the Simple conjugation with a modal auxiliary generally refer
to present or future time; whereas verbs in the Perfect conjugation with
a modal auxiliary generally refer to past time.<BR>
<BR>
Verbs in the Continuous conjugation with a modal auxiliary generally refer
to continuous, ongoing actions in present or future time; whereas verbs in
the Perfect Continuous conjugation with a modal auxiliary generally refer to
continuous, ongoing actions in past time.<BR>
<BR>
The word order for questions and negative statements in the conjugations
with the modal auxiliaries is similar to that in other English conjugations.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="1a"></A>
<B>a. Questions</B><BR>
To form a question, the first auxiliary is placed before the subject. For example:<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE  border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Affirmative Statement</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Question</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; She can work.</TD><TD>&nbsp; Can she work?</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; He would be working.</TD><TD>&nbsp; Would he be working?</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; They should have worked.</TD><TD>&nbsp; Should they have worked?</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; I could have been working.</TD><TD>&nbsp; Could I have been working?</TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex10.html#1">Exercise 1</A>.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="1b"></A>
<B>b. Negative statements</B><BR>
To form a negative statement, the word <B>not</B> is placed after the first
auxiliary. It should be noted that the auxiliary <B>can</B>, followed by
<B>not</B>, is written as a single word. For example:<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE  border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Affirmative Statement</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Negative Statement</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; She can work.</TD><TD>&nbsp; She cannot work.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; He would be working.</TD><TD>&nbsp; He would not be working.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; They should have worked.</TD><TD>&nbsp; They should not have worked.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; I could have been working.</TD><TD>&nbsp; I could not have been working.</TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex10.html#2">Exercise 2</A>.<BR>
<BR>
<A NAME="1bco"></A>
In spoken English, the following contractions may be used:<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE  border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Without Contractions</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>With Contractions</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; cannot</TD><TD>&nbsp; can't</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; could not</TD><TD>&nbsp; couldn't</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; might not</TD><TD>&nbsp; mightn't</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; must not</TD><TD>&nbsp; mustn't</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; shall not</TD><TD>&nbsp; shan't</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; should not</TD><TD>&nbsp; shouldn't</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; will not</TD><TD>&nbsp; won't</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; would not</TD><TD>&nbsp; wouldn't</TD></TR>
</TABLE>
<BR>
However, it should be noted that the contractions <B>mightn't</B> and
<B>shan't</B> are rarely used in modern American English.<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 109-->
<A NAME="1c"></A>
<B>c. Negative questions</B><BR>
To form a negative question, the first auxiliary is placed before the
subject, and the word <B>not</B> is placed after the subject. However, when
contractions are used, the contracted form of <B>not</B> follows immediately
after the auxiliary. For example:<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE  border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Without Contractions</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>With Contractions</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; Can she not work?</TD><TD>&nbsp; Can't she work?</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; Would he not be working?</TD><TD>&nbsp; Wouldn't he be working?</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; Should they not have worked?</TD><TD>&nbsp; Shouldn't they have worked?</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; Could I not have been working?</TD><TD>&nbsp; Couldn't I have been working?</TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex10.html#3">Exercise 3</A>.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="1d"></A>
<B>d. Tag questions</B><BR>
Tag questions are formed using the first auxiliary. In the following
examples, the negative tag questions are underlined.<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE  border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Affirmative Statement</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Affirmative Statement with Tag Question</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; She can work.</TD><TD>&nbsp; She can work, <U>can't she</U>?</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; He would be working.</TD><TD>&nbsp; He would be working, <U>wouldn't he</U>?</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; They should have worked.</TD><TD>&nbsp; They should have worked, <U>shouldn't they</U>?</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; I could have been working.</TD><TD>&nbsp; I could have been working, <U>couldn't I</U>?</TD></TR>
</TABLE>
<P>
&nbsp;<BR>

<A NAME="2"></A>
<CENTER><B>2. Relationships among the modal auxiliaries</B></CENTER><BR>

Just as <B>would</B> can be used as the past of <B>will</B>; <B>could</B> can be used
as the past of <B>can</B>; <B>might</B> can be used as the past of <B>may</B>; and
<B>should</B> can be used as the past of <B>shall</B>. The auxiliary <B>must</B> can
refer either to the present or to the past. These relationships among
the modal auxiliaries can be summarized as follows:<BR>
<BR>
<CENTER><TABLE width="65%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Present</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Past</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; can</TD><TD>&nbsp; could</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; may</TD><TD>&nbsp; might</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; must</TD><TD>&nbsp; must</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; shall</TD><TD>&nbsp; should</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; will</TD><TD>&nbsp; would</TD></TR>
</TABLE></CENTER><BR>
<BR>
The following examples illustrate these relationships:<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE  border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Tense of Verb in Main Clause</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Complete Sentence</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; Simple Present</TD><TD>&nbsp; I <B>think</B> I <U>can do</U> it.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; Simple Past</TD><TD>&nbsp; I <B>thought</B> I <U>could do</U> it.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; Simple Present</TD><TD>&nbsp; He <B>predicts</B> it <U>may rain</U>.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; Simple Past</TD><TD>&nbsp; He <B>predicted</B> it <U>might rain</U>.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD></TR>


<!--page 110-->
<TR><TD>&nbsp; Simple Present</TD><TD>&nbsp; She <B>knows</B> she <U>must be</U> there.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; Simple Past</TD><TD>&nbsp; She <B>knew</B> she <U>must be</U> there.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; Simple Present</TD><TD>&nbsp; I <B>wonder</B> what we <U>shall do</U> tomorrow.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; Simple Past</TD><TD>&nbsp; I <B>wondered</B> what we <U>should do</U> the next day.</TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex10.html#4">Exercises 4</A> and <A HREF="gramex10.html#5">5</A>.<BR>
<BR>
Each of the modal auxiliaries has more than one meaning. The meaning
depends upon the context in which the auxiliary is used.<P>
&nbsp;<BR>

<A NAME="3"></A>
<CENTER><B>3. Can and Could</B></CENTER><BR>
The modal auxiliary <B>can</B> is most often used in the Simple conjugation.<BR>
<BR>
The most important meaning of <B>can</B> and <B>could</B> is <B>to be able to</B>.<BR>
e.g. He <U>can walk</U> thirty miles a day.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; When she was young, she <U>could swim</U> across the lake.<BR>
The first example has the meaning, <B>He is able to walk thirty miles a day.</B>
The second example has the meaning, <B>When she was young, she was able to
swim across the lake.</B><BR>
<BR>
Like the auxiliary <B>would</B>, <B>could</B> can be used in polite requests and
suggestions.<BR>
e.g. <U>Could</U> you please <U>tell</U> me how to get to Almond Street?<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; You <U>could try</U> asking the bus driver to help you.<BR>
<BR>
As indicated in the previous chapter, <B>could</B> can be used in sentences
expressing wishes.<BR>
e.g. He wished he <U>could visit</U> France.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; I wish I <U>could have helped</U> you.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex10.html#6">Exercise 6</A>.<BR>
<BR>
It has also been pointed out that <B>could</B> can be used in either the main
clause or the subordinate clause of a statement expressing a false or
improbable condition.<BR>
e.g. If he were stronger, he <U>could help</U> us push the car out of the snow.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; She <U>could have caught</U> the bus if she had left right away.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; I would be glad if I <U>could help</U> you.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; If he <U>could have solved</U> the problem, he would have felt happier.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex10.html#7">Exercises 7</A> and <A HREF="gramex10.html#8">8</A>.<BR>
<BR>
In <U>informal</U> English, <B>can</B> is often used with the meaning <B>to be allowed to</B>.<BR>
e.g. He says I <U>can take</U> the day off.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Can</U> I <U>have</U> some more soup?<BR>
<BR>
However, in <U>formal</U> English, it is considered more correct to use the
auxiliary <B>may</B> in such situations.<BR>
He says I <U>may take</U> the day off.<BR>
<U>May</U> I <U>have</U> some more soup?<P>
&nbsp;<BR>

<!--page 111-->
<A NAME="4"></A>
<CENTER><B>4. May, Might and Must</B></CENTER><BR>
One of the meanings of <B>may</B> and <B>might</B> is <B>to be allowed to</B>.
<BR>
e.g. The members of the organization agree that I <U>may join</U> it.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The members of the organization agreed that I <U>might join</U> it.<BR>
<BR>
The auxiliary <B>must</B> is a stronger form of <B>may</B> and <B>might</B>. One of
the meanings of <B>must</B> is <B>to be obliged to</B> or <B>to have to</B>.<BR>
e.g. You <U>must provide</U> proper identification in order to cash a check.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; They <U>must work</U> harder if they are to succeed.<BR>
<BR>
It should be noted that the meaning of <B>must not</B> is <B>to be obliged not to</B>.<BR>
e.g. You <U>must not</U> leave.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; He <U>must not</U> speak.<BR>
The first example has the meaning, <B>You must stay.</B> The second example
has the meaning, <B>He must be silent.</B><BR>
<BR>
In order to express the idea of not being obliged to do something,
an expression such as <B>not to be obliged to</B> or <B>not to have to</B> is
generally used.
<BR>
e.g. You <U>do not have to</U> leave.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; He <U>is not obliged to</U> speak.<BR>
The first example has the meaning, <B>You may stay, if you wish.</B> The
second example has the meaning, <B>He may be silent, if he wishes.</B><BR>
<BR>
Like <B>could</B> and <B>would</B>, <B>might</B> can be used in polite requests and
suggestions. The auxiliaries <B>could</B>, <B>would</B> and <B>might</B> can be used
to express differing degrees of politeness:<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE  border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Degree of Politeness</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Auxiliary</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; somewhat polite</TD><TD>&nbsp; could</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; quite polite</TD><TD>&nbsp; would</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; very polite</TD><TD>&nbsp; might</TD></TR>
</TABLE>
<BR>
Thus, <B>might</B> expresses the highest degree of politeness.<BR>
e.g. <U>Might</U> I <U>observe</U> what you are doing?<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Might</U> I <U>offer</U> some advice?<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex10.html#9">Exercise 9</A>.<BR>
<BR>
<B>May</B>, <B>might</B> and <B>must</B> are also used to express differing degrees of
probability:<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE  border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Degree of Probability</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Auxiliary</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; somewhat probable</TD><TD>&nbsp; may, might</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; highly probable</TD><TD>&nbsp; must</TD></TR>
</TABLE>
<BR>
For instance, <B>may</B> and <B>might</B> are often used in the Simple conjugation
to express the idea that an event is somewhat probable.<BR>
e.g. You <U>might be</U> right.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; It <U>may snow</U> later this afternoon.<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 112-->
Similarly, <B>must</B> can be used in the Simple conjugation to express the
idea that an event is highly probable.<BR>
e.g. He <U>must be</U> mistaken.<BR>
<BR>
In the following examples, the Perfect conjugations with <B>may</B>, <B>might</B>
and <B>must</B> are used to express differing degrees of probability relating
to past events.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Rupert <U>might have taken</U> the money, but it seems unlikely.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; It is possible he <U>may have called</U> while we were out.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; It <U>must have rained</U> last night, because the streets are wet.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex10.html#10">Exercise 10</A>.<P>
&nbsp;<BR>

<A NAME="5"></A>
<CENTER><B>5. Should</B></CENTER><BR>
In British English, the Simple conjugation with the auxiliary <B>should</B>
is often used in subordinate clauses stating conditions. This construction
is usually used to refer to events that may occur by chance.<BR>
e.g. If I <U>should see</U> him, I will tell him what I think.<BR>
<BR>
<B>Should</B> is also used with the meaning <B>ought to</B>. This is the most
common use of <B>should</B> in American English.<BR>
e.g. You <U>should take</U> an umbrella with you, in case it starts to rain.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; I <U>should answer</U> his letter as soon as possible.<BR>
<A NAME="5ou"></A>
<BR>
<B>Ought</B> is said to be a <B>defective</B> verb, since it has no infinitive, or
present or past participle. It does not modify, but has the same form,
regardless of the subject. <B>Ought</B> can be used only in combination with
other verbs. Unlike the modal auxiliaries, which are followed by the
bare infinitive, <B>ought</B> is followed by the infinitive of whatever verb
it accompanies.<BR>
<BR>
In each of the following examples, <B>ought</B> is underlined, and the
infinitive which follows it is printed in bold type.<BR>
e.g. You <U>ought</U> <B>to take</B> an umbrella with you.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; He <U>ought</U> <B>to stop</B> smoking.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; They <U>ought</U> <B>to drive</B> more carefully.<P>
&nbsp;<BR>

<A NAME="6"></A>
<CENTER><B>6. Expressions which are synonymous with the modal auxiliaries</B></CENTER><BR>
The modal verbs can be used only as auxiliaries; they cannot be used on
their own. They are defective, since they have no infinitive, or present
or past participle.<BR>
<BR>
It should be noted that in addition to the modal auxiliaries <B>will</B> and
<B>can</B>, there are two other English verbs, <B>to will</B> and <B>to can</B>, which
are conjugated regularly. The verb <B>to will</B> has the meaning <B>to direct
one's willpower toward something</B>, or <B>to bequeath by means of a will</B>.
The verb <B>to can</B> has the meaning <B>to put into a can</B>.<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 113-->
Because the modal auxiliaries are defective, they cannot be combined with
one another. Thus, the fact that the English future tenses are formed
with the modal auxiliaries <B>will</B> and <B>shall</B> means that the other modal
auxiliaries cannot be put into the future.<BR>
<BR>
When it is desired to put the ideas expressed by the modal auxiliaries
into the future, synonymous expressions must be used. The following are
the synonymous expressions most often used:<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE  border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Modal Auxiliary</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Synonymous Expression</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; can</TD><TD>&nbsp; be able to</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; may</TD><TD>&nbsp; be allowed to</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; must</TD><TD>&nbsp; have to</TD></TR>
</TABLE>
<BR>
It should be noted that the expression <B>be allowed to</B> is synonymous with
<B>may</B> only when <B>may</B> is used in the sense of permission being granted.<BR>
<BR>
The following examples illustrate how synonymous expressions may be used
when it is desired to put the modal auxiliaries <B>can</B>, <B>may</B> and <B>must</B>
into the future.<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE  border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Present</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Future</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; I <U>can</U> work.</TD><TD>&nbsp; I <U>will be able to</U> work.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; You <U>may</U> work.</TD><TD>&nbsp; You <U>will be allowed to</U> work.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; He must work.</TD><TD>&nbsp; He <U>will have to</U> work.</TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex10.html#11">Exercise 11</A>.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="6a"></A>
<B>a. The pronunciation of Have To</B><BR>
The following table illustrates how the pronunciation of the words
<B>have</B> and <B>has</B> in the expression <B>have to</B> differs from the usual
pronunciation of the verb <B>to have</B>. In the expression <B>have to</B>,
the consonant preceding the <B>t</B> of <B>to</B> is unvoiced. An imitated
pronunciation of <B>has</B> and <B>have</B> is indicated in the right-hand
column.<BR>
<BR>
<CENTER><B>Usual pronunciation of Have</B></CENTER><BR>
<TABLE  border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Example</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Imitated Pronunciation</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; She <U>has</U> two children.</TD><TD>&nbsp; &quot;haz&quot;</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; We <U>have</U> two children.</TD><TD>&nbsp; &quot;hav&quot;</TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>
<BR>
<CENTER><B>Pronunciation of Have in the expression Have To</B></CENTER><BR>
<TABLE  border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Example</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Imitated Pronunciation</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; She <U>has</U> to leave.</TD><TD>&nbsp; &quot;hass&quot;</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; We <U>have</U> to leave.</TD><TD>&nbsp; &quot;haff&quot;</TD></TR>
</TABLE>
<P>
&nbsp;<BR>

<!--page 114-->
<A NAME="7"></A>
<CENTER><B>7. The use of auxiliaries in tag questions, short answers and ellipsis</B></CENTER><BR>

In English, the verbs used as auxiliaries are <B>to be</B>, <B>to do</B>, <B>to have</B>,
and the modal auxiliaries. All of these auxiliaries can be used in tag
questions and short answers.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="7a"></A>
<B>a. Negative tag questions</B><BR>
Negative tag questions have already been discussed. An affirmative
statement is often followed by a negative tag question, in order to ask
for confirmation of the affirmative statement. In the following examples,
the negative tag questions are underlined. Contractions are usually
used in negative tag questions.<BR>
e.g. You are coming with me, <U>aren't you</U>?<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; You like coffee, <U>don't you</U>?<BR>
<BR>
For the Simple Present and the Simple Past of the verb <B>to be</B>, tag
questions are formed using the verb itself. For instance, in the
following examples, the verbs <B>is</B> and <B>were</B> are used in negative
tag questions.<BR>
e.g. She is very nice, <U>isn't she</U>?<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; They were ready on time, <U>weren't they</U>?<BR>
<BR>
For the Simple Present and the Simple Past of verbs other than the verb
<B>to be</B>, the auxiliary <B>to do</B> is used in tag questions. For instance,
in the following examples, the auxiliaries <B>does</B> and <B>did</B> are used in
negative tag questions.<BR>
e.g. He rides a bicycle, <U>doesn't he</U>?<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; They ordered pizza, <U>didn't they</U>?<BR>
<BR>
For all other tenses and conjugations, the first auxiliary is used in
tag questions. For instance, in the following examples, the first
auxiliaries <B>have</B>, <B>would</B>, <B>should</B> and <B>can</B> are used in negative
tag questions.<BR>
e.g. You have worked all night, <U>haven't you</U>?<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; He would have helped us, <U>wouldn't he</U>?<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; They should get more exercise, <U>shouldn't they</U>?<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; She can speak five languages, <U>can't she</U>?<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex10.html#12">Exercise 12</A>.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="7b"></A>
<B>b. Affirmative tag questions</B><BR>
A negative statement is often followed by an affirmative tag question,
in order to ask for confirmation of the negative statement, or in order
to ask for more information. In the following examples, the affirmative
tag questions are underlined.<BR>
e.g. He is not very tall, <U>is he</U>?<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; They don't want to work, <U>do they</U>?<BR>
<BR>
The rules for forming affirmative tag questions are similar to those for
forming negative tag questions. In the case of the Simple Present and
Simple Past of the verb <B>to be</B>, the verb itself is used; and in the case
of all other tenses and conjugations, the first auxiliary is used.<BR>

<!--page 115-->
e.g. He wasn't much help, <U>was he</U>?<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; They didn't want to come with us, <U>did they</U>?<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; You hadn't slept well, <U>had you</U>?<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; She can't speak Greek, <U>can she</U>?<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; They wouldn't mind helping us, <U>would they</U>?<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex10.html#13">Exercise 13</A>.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="7c"></A>
<B>c. Short answers</B><BR>
Sometimes it is possible to reply to a question by means of a short answer,
consisting of a subject, followed by the verb or first auxiliary used in the
question. The rules for forming affirmative and negative short answers are
similar to those for forming affirmative and negative tag questions. Thus,
in the case of the Simple Present and Simple Past of the verb <B>to be</B>, the
verb itself is used; and in the case of all other tenses and conjugations,
the first auxiliary is used.<BR>
<BR>
The following are examples of questions with affirmative and negative
short answers. The verbs and auxiliaries are underlined.<BR>
<BR>
Contractions are usually used in negative short answers.<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE  border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Question</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Affirmative Short Answer</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Negative Short Answer</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; <U>Is</U> he ready?</TD><TD>&nbsp; Yes, he <U>is</U>.</TD><TD>&nbsp; No, he <U>is</U>n't.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; <U>Were</U> you finished?</TD><TD>&nbsp; Yes, I <U>was</U>.</TD><TD>&nbsp; No, I <U>was</U>n't.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; <U>Do</U> you <U>know</U> them?</TD><TD>&nbsp; Yes, I <U>do</U>.</TD><TD>&nbsp; No, I <U>do</U>n't.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; <U>Did</U> we <U>win</U>?</TD><TD>&nbsp; Yes, we <U>did</U>.</TD><TD>&nbsp; No, we <U>did</U>n't.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; <U>Has</U> he <U>left</U>?</TD><TD>&nbsp; Yes, he <U>has</U>.</TD><TD>&nbsp; No, he <U>has</U>n't.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; <U>Will</U> they <U>need</U> help?</TD><TD>&nbsp; Yes, they <U>will</U>.</TD><TD>&nbsp; No, they <U>wo</U>n't.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; <U>Could</U> you <U>help</U> me?</TD><TD>&nbsp; Yes, I <U>could</U>.</TD><TD>&nbsp; No, I <U>could</U>n't.</TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>
<BR>
It should be noted that the form of the verb in a short answer is not
always the same as the form of the verb in the question, since the verb
of a short answer must agree with its subject. In the following examples,
the verbs are underlined, and their subjects are printed in bold type.<BR>
e.g. <U>Are</U> <B>you</B> ready? Yes, <B>I</B> <U>am</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Were</U> <B>you</B> excited? Yes, <B>I</B> <U>was</U>.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex10.html#14">Exercises 14</A> and <A HREF="gramex10.html#15">15</A>.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="7d"></A>
<B>d. Ellipsis</B><BR>
In English, words can sometimes be omitted from a sentence without
changing the meaning of the sentence. The words which are omitted are
said to be &quot;understood&quot;. This type of short form is usually referred to
as <B>ellipsis</B>.<BR>
<BR>
Short answers are one kind of ellipsis. For instance, in the example:<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Can</U> you <U>speak</U> Spanish? Yes, I <U>can</U>.<BR>
the short answer <B>Yes, I can,</B> means <B>Yes, I can speak Spanish.</B>
The words <B>speak Spanish</B> are understood.<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 116-->
Another kind of ellipsis uses the words <B>and so</B>, followed by the verb
or first auxiliary, followed by the subject.<BR>
<BR>
For instance, the sentence:<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; He <U>can speak</U> Spanish, and I <U>can speak</U> Spanish too.<BR>
would normally be shortened to:<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; He <U>can speak</U> Spanish, and so <U>can</U> I.<BR>
<BR>
Other examples of this type of ellipsis are given below. The verbs and
auxiliaries are underlined.<BR>
<BR>
<U>Without Ellipsis</U>: She <U>is</U> tired, and I <U>am</U> tired too.<BR>
<U>With Ellipsis</U>: She <U>is</U> tired, and so <U>am</U> I.<BR>
<BR>
<U>Without Ellipsis</U>: They <U>like</U> ice cream, and we <U>like</U> ice cream too.<BR>
<U>With Ellipsis</U>: They <U>like</U> ice cream, and so <U>do</U> we.<BR>
<BR>
<U>Without Ellipsis</U>: He <U>wrote</U> a letter, and I <U>wrote</U> a letter too.<BR>
<U>With Ellipsis</U>: He <U>wrote</U> a letter, and so <U>did</U> I.<BR>
<BR>
<U>Without Ellipsis</U>: You <U>had worked</U> all night, and I <U>had worked</U> all night too.<BR>
<U>With Ellipsis</U>: You <U>had worked</U> all night, and so <U>had</U> I.<BR>
<BR>
<U>Without Ellipsis</U>: You <U>should get</U> more sleep, and we <U>should get</U> more sleep too.<BR>
<U>With Ellipsis</U>: You <U>should get</U> more sleep, and so <U>should</U> we.<BR>
<BR>
As illustrated above, the rules for forming the construction with
<B>and so</B> are similar to the rules for forming tag questions and short
answers. Thus, in the case of the Simple Present and Simple Past of the
verb <B>to be</B>, the verb itself is used; in the case of the Simple Present
and Simple Past of verbs other than the verb <B>to be</B>, the auxiliary
<B>to do</B> is used; and in the case of all other tenses and conjugations,
the first auxiliary is used.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex10.html#16">Exercise 16</A>.<BR>
<BR>
The construction using the words <B>and so</B> is used to express an
affirmative idea, following an affirmative statement.<BR>
<BR>
In contrast, a similar construction, using the words <B>and neither</B>,
is used to express a negative idea, following a negative statement.<BR>
<BR>
For instance, the sentence:<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; He <U>can</U>not <U>speak</U> Danish, and I <U>can</U>not <U>speak</U> Danish either.<BR>
would normally be shortened to:<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; He <U>can</U>not <U>speak</U> Danish, and neither <U>can</U> I.<BR>
<BR>
Other examples of this type of ellipsis are given below. The verbs and
auxiliaries are underlined.<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 117-->
<U>Without Ellipsis</U>: She <U>is</U> not ready, and you <U>are</U> not ready either.<BR>
<U>With Ellipsis</U>: She <U>is</U> not ready, and neither <U>are</U> you.<BR>
<BR>
<U>Without Ellipsis</U>: They <U>do</U> not <U>own</U> a car, and he <U>does</U> not <U>own</U> a car either.<BR>
<U>With Ellipsis</U>: They <U>do</U> not <U>own</U> a car, and neither <U>does</U> he.<BR>
<BR>
<U>Without Ellipsis</U>: We <U>have</U> not <U>forgotten</U>, and she <U>has</U> not <U>forgotten</U> either.<BR>
<U>With Ellipsis</U>: We <U>have</U> not <U>forgotten</U>, and neither <U>has</U> she.<BR>
<BR>
<U>Without Ellipsis</U>: They <U>could</U>n't <U>find</U> it, and we <U>could</U>n't find it either.<BR>
<U>With Ellipsis</U>: They <U>could</U>n't find it, and neither <U>could</U> we.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex10.html#17">Exercise 17</A>.

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